The Hundred Days (les Cent-Jours) marks a critical episode in European history, spanning from Napoleon Bonaparte‘s dramatic return from exile on Elba on March 20, 1815, to the second restoration of King Louis XVIII on July 8, 1815. Despite the name, the period lasted 110 days and witnessed the final chapter of the Napoleonic Wars. This era is defined by the War of the Seventh Coalition, including major events like the Waterloo Campaign and minor conflicts such as the Neapolitan War. The name les Cent-Jours was famously coined by the Prefect of Paris, Gaspard, Comte de Chabrol, during Louis XVIII’s return to Paris.
Early Successes and the First Abdication
Napoleon emerged from the French Revolutionary Wars as a military hero, quickly ascending to political power through the coup d’état of 1799. By 1804, he crowned himself Emperor, ushering in an era of sweeping reforms and European conquests. However, his ambitions led to a series of wars against various coalitions, culminating in significant defeats. The disastrous Russian campaign of 1812 and the crushing defeat at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 weakened his empire. By March 1814, coalition forces entered Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate on April 6. He was exiled to Elba, a small Mediterranean island, while the Bourbon monarchy was reinstated.
Life on Elba
Napoleon’s exile on Elba was brief but eventful. Although granted sovereignty over the island, he closely monitored developments in France. Dissatisfaction with the restored Bourbon regime grew, fueled by royalist arrogance and their neglect of Napoleonic veterans. Sensing an opportunity amidst the unrest and tensions among European powers at the Congress of Vienna, Napoleon prepared for his return. On February 26, 1815, he escaped Elba with a small force, setting the stage for the Hundred Days.
In February 1815, Napoleon escaped from his exile in Elba and headed to France to restore his French Empire.
How did Napoleon rise to prominence?
The Return: Napoleon’s Triumph to Paris
Napoleon landed in France on March 1, 1815, near Golfe-Juan. Avoiding the royalist strongholds of Provence, he advanced through the Alps, rallying support as he moved north. His journey, later commemorated as the Route Napoléon, showcased his unparalleled charisma. Soldiers sent to capture him famously switched sides after he declared, “Here I am; kill your Emperor if you wish.”
By March 20, Napoleon entered Paris unopposed. King Louis XVIII had fled, and Napoleon resumed power amidst widespread public support. His promises of reform and constitutional governance resonated with many. However, the European powers responded swiftly, declaring him an outlaw on March 13 and forming the Seventh Coalition.
A portrait of Louis XVIII painted by French artist François Gérard in 1814.
Mobilization for War: The Seventh Coalition
The Seventh Coalition, comprising Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia, pledged to mobilize 150,000 troops each to defeat Napoleon. Smaller states like the Netherlands and Sardinia also contributed forces. The coalition’s military strategy involved converging on France from multiple fronts to ensure Napoleon’s defeat.
Napoleon acted swiftly to consolidate his position. By May 1815, he had mobilized an army of 200,000 men, with an additional 66,000 in training. His strategy centered on preemptively striking coalition forces in Belgium before they could unite.
The Waterloo Campaign: The Decisive Conflict
Hostilities began on June 15, 1815, when Napoleon crossed the Sambre River and established a central position between the Anglo-allied army under the Duke of Wellington and the Prussian army under Marshal Blücher. His aim was to defeat these armies separately before their reinforcements arrived.
On June 16, Napoleon achieved a tactical victory against the Prussians at Ligny, forcing them to retreat. Meanwhile, Marshal Ney failed to decisively defeat Wellington at Quatre Bras, allowing the Anglo-allied forces to withdraw northward.
On June 18, the Battle of Waterloo became the climax of the campaign. Despite early successes, Napoleon’s forces faltered due to strategic missteps, Wellington’s defensive resilience, and the timely arrival of Blücher’s Prussian forces. By evening, the French army was in disarray, marking Napoleon’s final defeat.
An artwork depicting the Battle of Waterloo. It was created by Irish painter William Sadler II.
Aftermath: The Fall of Napoleon
Following the defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon retreated to Paris. Facing political and military collapse, he abdicated on June 22 in favor of his son, Napoleon II. However, the coalition rejected any terms that preserved Napoleonic rule. Napoleon fled Paris, hoping to escape to America, but surrendered to British forces on July 15.
Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he lived under British supervision until his death in 1821. His defeat marked the definitive end of the Napoleonic Wars.
Other Campaigns During the Hundred Days
While Napoleon campaigned in Belgium, his ally and brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, launched the Neapolitan War against Austria to retain his throne. The conflict ended with Murat’s defeat at the Battle of Tolentino and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in Naples.
Royalist forces, particularly in the Vendée, resisted Napoleon’s rule. Although these uprisings posed challenges, they were ultimately suppressed by Imperial forces.
The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration
The Congress of Vienna, ongoing during Napoleon’s return, was briefly disrupted but resumed after his defeat. The congress aimed to redraw Europe’s borders and restore stability. It played a key role in organizing the coalition against Napoleon and ensuring his permanent removal.
On July 8, 1815, Louis XVIII re-entered Paris, marking the second Bourbon Restoration. The monarchy, however, remained precarious, facing challenges from Napoleonic loyalists and demands for reform.
Legacy and Historical Significance
The Hundred Days highlighted Napoleon’s enduring military genius, particularly his ability to mobilize and inspire troops. However, it also revealed the limitations of his strategy against a united Europe.
Napoleon’s brief return exposed deep divisions in French society. His promises of reform hinted at a transition toward constitutional governance, influencing subsequent political developments in France.
While it ended in defeat, the Hundred Days solidified Napoleon’s legacy as one of history’s most remarkable leaders.
The defeat at Waterloo and the subsequent exile of Napoleon marked the end of the Napoleonic Era. The Treaty of Paris (1815) formally concluded the Napoleonic Wars, imposing harsh terms on France and solidifying the balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna.
February 26: Napoleon escapes exile on Elba with 1,000 men.
March 1: Lands at Golfe-Juan and begins his march toward Paris.
March 13: Congress of Vienna declares Napoleon an outlaw.
March 15: Joachim Murat declares war on Austria, initiating the Neapolitan War.
March 19: King Louis XVIII flees Paris as Napoleon approaches.
March 20: Napoleon enters Paris, beginning the Hundred Days.
April 9: Royalists in the south agree to a convention with Napoleon.
May 15: Napoleon mobilizes forces, forming L’Armée du Nord.
June 15-18: Waterloo Campaign; Napoleon defeats Prussians at Ligny but is routed at the Battle of Waterloo.
June 22: Napoleon abdicates for the second time in favor of his son.
June 29: Napoleon departs Paris for Rochefort.
July 7: Coalition forces occupy Paris; Provisional Government collapses.
July 8: Louis XVIII reenters Paris, restoring the Bourbon monarchy.
July 15: Napoleon surrenders to British forces aboard HMS Bellerophon.
November 20: Treaty of Paris formally ends the Napoleonic Wars, imposing harsh terms on France.
Napoleon saw political unrest in France, dissatisfaction with the Bourbon monarchy, and a chance to reclaim power. He escaped Elba on February 26, 1815, landing in France to gather support and reestablish his rule.
On March 13, 1815, the Congress of Vienna declared Napoleon an outlaw. The Great Powers—Austria, Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom—formed the Seventh Coalition, pledging military force to defeat him.
Fought on June 18, 1815, the Battle of Waterloo marked Napoleon’s final defeat by the Anglo-allied forces under the Duke of Wellington and Prussian forces under Gebhard von Blücher.
Napoleon abdicated on June 22, 1815, in favor of his son, Napoleon II, but fled to avoid capture. On July 15, he surrendered to British forces and was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.
The Waterloo Campaign and minor campaigns, such as the Neapolitan War, defined the Hundred Days. Napoleon’s Army of the North faced the Seventh Coalition’s forces, leading to his ultimate defeat.
The treaty reduced France to its 1790 borders, imposed a 700 million franc indemnity, and mandated a coalition army occupation for up to five years to ensure stability and compliance.
The Hundred Days marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the restoration of Bourbon rule, and the establishment of a balance of power in Europe, shaping the continent’s political order for decades.
